Managing Across Cultures

There are several elements of the definition of culture that are important in our understanding of the relationship between cultural issues and international management. Culture is learned – this means that it is not innate; people are socialized from childhood to learn the rules and norms of their culture. It also means that when one goes to another culture, it is possible to learn the new culture. Culture is shared-this means that the focus is on those things that are shared by members of a particular group rather than on individual differences; as such, it means that it is possible to study and identify group patterns. Culture is compelling-this means that specific behavior is determined by culture without individuals being aware of the influence of their culture; as such, it means that it is important to understand culture in order to understand behavior. Culture is an interrelated set-this means that while various facets of culture can be examined in isolation, these should be understood in the context of the whole; as such, it means that a culture needs to be studied as a complete entity. Culture provides orientation to people-this means that members of a particular group generally react in the same way to a given stimulus; as such, it means that understanding a culture can help in determining how group members might react in various situations. Because culture is so fundamental to society, it influences people's behaviors in critical ways. Effective management depends, at least in part, on ensuring that people behave in ways that are appropriate for the organization. This means that understanding culture is important for managers. Where cultural differences exist they may need to be accommodated to achieve desired behavior and results.

Values are useful in explaining and understanding cultural similarities and differences in behavior; thus, understanding values and their cultural basis is helpful to international managers. If international managers understand how values can vary from culture to culture, they are more likely to accept and interpret correctly behavioral differences. This acceptance and correct interpretation, in turn, enable managers to interact effectively with others whose values and behaviors are unfamiliar.

It is helpful to define the concept of cultural values, as well as to distinguish it from and relate it to other concepts. This serves to delineate the domain of cultural values, and to underscore their importance to international managers. The following discussion begins with cultural values, and then examines needs, attitudes, and norms. These latter concepts are all similar to that of cultural values, but each contributes somewhat differently to behavior.

Values have been described as enduring beliefs those specific modes of conduct or end states of existence are socially preferable to their opposites (Rokeach 1973); a value system is seen as a relatively permanent perceptual framework that influences an individual's behavior (England 1978). Values establish the standards by which the importance of everything in society is judged. Throughout these definitions, the important issue for international management appears to be the role of social values in behavior. In a general sense, values and norms are societal, while needs and attitudes are individual. Values interact with needs, attributes, and norms, as the following discussion explains.

Needs are described as forces motivating an individual to act in a certain way; once satisfied, needs no longer have an impact on behavior. For example, a need for food motivates people to seek food; once people have eaten; they normally no longer seek food (unless motivated by other needs). Cultural values interact with individual needs because they influence how people choose to satisfy their needs. It is generally accepted that two of the most basic and universal human needs are the need for food and the need for sex, yet satisfaction of these needs differs because of societal values. In most societies the value of human life precludes cannibalism. Societies often have accepted times for eating, and even when people are hungry, they observe these timeframes. Similarly, social customs regarding sexual partners limit satisfaction of sexual needs.

Many societies practice restrictions regarding food, often associated with religious rituals. During Lent, Christians may forgo favorite foods or limit their intake of meat. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims fast completely during daylight hours. Some sects eat no meat, some do not allow beef, and others prohibit shellfish or pork, and still others proscribe certain combinations of foods. Individual needs are put aside to observe these restrictions.

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